The hour (common symbol: h or hr) is a unit of measurement of time. In modern usage, an hour comprises 60 minutes, or 3,600 seconds. It is approximately 1/24 of a mean solar day.

An hour in the Universal Coordinated Time (UTC) time standard can include a negative or positive leap second, and may therefore have a duration of or for adjustment purposes.

Although it is not a standard defined by the International System of Units, the hour is a unit accepted for use with SI, represented by the symbol h.

Etymology

The Middle English word ''ure'' first appears in the 13th century, as a loanword from Old French ''ure'', ''ore'', from Latin ''hora''. ''Hora'', in turn, derives from Greek ("season, time of day, hour"). In terms of the Proto-Indo-European language, is a cognate of English ''year'' and is derived from the Proto-Indo-European word '''' ("year, summer").

The ''ure'' of Middle English and the Anglo-French ''houre'' gradually supplanted the Old English nouns ''tīd'' (which survives in Modern English as ''tide'') and ''stund''. ''Stund'' is the progenitor of ''stound'', which remains an archaic synonym for ''hour''. ''Stund'' is related to the Old High German ''stunta'', from Germanic ''*stundō'' ("time, interval, while").

History

Ancient Egyptians used sundials that "divided a sunlit day into 10 parts plus two "twilight hours" in the morning and evening."

The Greek astronomer, Andronicus of Cyrrhus, oversaw the construction of a horologion called the Tower of the Winds in Athens during the first century BCE. This structure tracked a 24-hour day using both sundials and mechanical hour indicators.

Ancient Sumer, India, and China also divided days into either one twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset or one twenty-fourth of a full day. In either case the division reflected the widespread use of a duodecimal numbering system. The importance of 12 has been attributed to the number of lunar cycles in a year.

Astronomers in Egypt's Middle Kingdom (9th and 10th Dynasties) observed a set of 36 decan stars throughout the year. These star tables have been found on the lids of coffins of the period. The heliacal rising of the next decan star marked the start of a new civil week, which was then ten days. The period from sunset to sunrise was marked by 18 decan stars. Three of these were assigned to each of the two twilight periods, so the period of total darkness was marked by the remaining 12 decan stars, resulting in the 12 divisions of the night. The time between the appearance of each of these decan stars over the horizon during the night would have been about 40 modern minutes. During the New Kingdom, the system was simplified, using a set of 24 stars, 12 of which marked the passage of the night.

Ancient Sinhalese in Sri Lanka divided a solar day into 60 ''Peya'' (now called Sinhala Peya). One Sinhala Peya was divided into 24 ''Vinadi''. It is interesting to observe that one ''Vinadi'' is equal to one present-day standard minute.

Earlier definitions of the hour varied within these parameters:

One twelfth of the time from sunrise to sunset. As a consequence, hours on summer days were longer than on winter days, their length varying with latitude and even, to a small extent, with the local weather (since it affects the atmosphere's index of refraction). For this reason, these hours are sometimes called ''temporal'', ''seasonal'', or ''unequal hours''. Romans, Greeks and Jews of the ancient world used this definition; as did the ancient Chinese and Japanese. The Romans and Greeks also divided the night into three or four night watches, but later the night (the time between sunset and sunrise) was also divided into twelve hours. When, in post-classical times, a clock showed these hours, its period had to be changed every morning and evening (for example by changing the length of its pendulum), or it had to keep to the position of the Sun on the ecliptic (see Prague Astronomical Clock).

One twenty-fourth of the apparent solar day (between one noon and the next, or between one sunset and the next). As a consequence hours varied a little, as the length of an apparent solar day varies throughout the year. When a clock showed these hours it had to be adjusted a few times in a month. These hours were sometimes referred to as ''equal'' or ''equinoctial'' hours.

One twenty-fourth of the mean solar day. See solar time for more information on the difference to the apparent solar day. When an accurate clock showed these hours it virtually never had to be adjusted. However, as the Earth's rotation slows down, this definition has been abandoned. See UTC.

Counting hours

Many different ways of counting the hours have been used. Because sunrise, sunset, and, to a lesser extent, noon, are the conspicuous points in the day, starting to count at these times was, for most people in most early societies, much easier than starting at midnight. However, with accurate clocks and modern astronomical equipment (and the telegraph or similar means to transfer a time signal in a split-second), this issue is much less relevant.

Astrolabes, sundials, and astronomical clocks sometimes show the hour length and count using some of these older definitions and counting methods.

Counting from dawn

In ancient and medieval cultures, the counting of hours generally started with sunrise. Before the widespread use of artificial light, societies were more concerned with the division between night and day, and daily routines often began when light was sufficient. Sunrise marked the beginning of the first hour (the ''zero'' hour), the middle of the day was at the end of the sixth hour and sunset at the end of the twelfth hour. This meant that the duration of hours varied with the season. In the Northern hemisphere, particularly in the more northerly latitudes, summer daytime hours were longer than winter daytime hours, each being one twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset. These variable-length hours were known as temporal hours, sometimes referred to, on astrolabes and astronomical clocks, for example, as "Babylonian" hours, and were in use until the appearance of the mechanical clock, which hastened the introduction of equal length hours.

The system of Italian hours can be seen on a number of clocks in Europe, where the dial is numbered from 1 to 24 in either Roman or Arabic numerals. The St Mark's Clock in Venice, and the Orloj in Prague are famous examples. It was also used in Poland and Bohemia until the 17th century.

The medieval Islamic day began at sunset. The first prayer of the day (maghrib) was to be performed between sunset and the end of twilight.

Counting from noon

For many centuries, up to 1925, astronomers counted the hours and days from noon, because it was the easiest solar event to measure accurately. An advantage of this method (used in the Julian Date system, in which a new Julian Day begins at noon) is that the date doesn't change during a single night's observing.

Counting from midnight

In the modern 12-hour clock, counting the hours starts at midnight and restarts at noon. Hours are numbered 12, 1, 2, ..., 11. Solar noon is always close to 12 noon, differing according to the equation of time by as much as fifteen minutes either way. At the equinoxes sunrise is around 6 A.M. (''ante meridiem'', ''before noon''), and sunset around 6 P.M. (''post meridiem'', ''after noon'').

In the modern 24-hour clock, counting the hours starts at midnight and hours are numbered from 0 to 23. Solar noon is always close to 12:00, again differing according to the equation of time. At the equinoxes sunrise is around 06:00 and sunset around 18:00.

Further reading

"Astronomy before the telescope". Ed. Christopher Walker. London: British Museum Press, 1996.

See also

Canonical hours

External links

References

Category:Orders of magnitude (time) Category:Units of time

als:Stunde ar:ساعة (وحدة) arc:ܫܥܬܐ ast:Hora bn:ঘণ্টা (সময়) zh-min-nan:Tiám-cheng ba:Сәғәт be:Гадзіна be-x-old:Гадзіна bg:Час bs:Sat (mjerna jedinica) ca:Hora cv:Сехет (вăхăт) cs:Hodina da:Time (enhed) de:Stunde et:Tund el:Ώρα eml:Ōra es:Hora eo:Horo eu:Ordu fa:ساعت (زمان) fr:Heure fy:Oere fur:Ore gv:Oor gd:Uair gl:Hora hak:Sṳ̀ ko:시간 (단위) hy:Ժամ hi:घंटा hr:Sat io:Horo ia:Hora is:Klukkustund it:Ora he:שעה jv:Jam ka:საათი (ერთეული) sw:Saa ht:Lè (tan) la:Hora lv:Stunda lb:Stonn lt:Valanda ln:Ngonga hu:Óra (időegység) mr:तास arz:ساعه (وحده) ms:Jam nl:Uur ja:時間 (単位) no:Time (tidsenhet) nn:Time nrm:Heure oc:Ora (temps) pa:ਘੰਟਾ pnb:کینٹہ nds:Stünn pl:Godzina pt:Hora ro:Oră qu:Ura ru:Час sah:Чаас se:Diibmu sco:Oor (time) nso:Iri simple:Hour sk:Hodina sl:Ura sr:Сат sh:Sat su:Jam fi:Tunti sv:Timme ta:மணித்தியாலம் th:ชั่วโมง tr:Saat (zaman) uk:Година ur:گھنٹہ vi:Giờ wa:Eure wo:Waxtu yo:Wákàtí zh-yue:鐘頭 zh:小时

Kim Bobo is a religious and workers' rights activist, and executive director of Interfaith Worker Justice. She is widely quoted in newspapers and broadcast media as an expert on worker justice issues.

Life and career

Born in Cincinnati, Ohio, and raised a conservative evangelical, Bobo graduated from Barnard College with a bachelor's degree in religion. She later received a master's degree in economics from the New School for Social Research.

Bobo is married to Stephen Coats, and has twin sons.

In 1976, Bobo became director of organizing for Bread for the World, a Christian organization which works to combat hunger. During this time, she wrote her first book, ''Lives Matter: A Handbook for Christian Organizing.''

Bobo left Bread for the World in 1986 and became an instructor at the Midwest Academy, a community organizing training institute in Chicago, Illinois. While at the Midwest Academy, Bobo and her colleagues co-authored ''Organizing for Social Change,'' a fundamental text in community-based organizing.

In 1989, Bobo became involved with a strike by coal miners at Pittston Coal. Attempting to organize religious leaders to support the workers, she was startled to find that almost no religious organizations had labor liaisons. She started an informal network of religious leaders to share information about campaigns for worker justice that year.

In 1991, Bobo founded the Chicago Interfaith Committee on Worker Issues. It was an all-volunteer group led by Bobo and four influential Chicago religious leaders.

In 1996, using a $5,000 inheritance from her grandmother, Bobo launched the National Interfaith Committee for Worker Justice. The organization initially was run out of her home. By 1998, the organization had 29 affiliates throughout the country. The group changed its name to Interfaith Worker Justice in 2005, by which time it had grown to 59 local affiliates and a full-time staff of 10. IWJ has been active on a number of worker's rights and worker justice issues.

Selected published works

Solely authored books

''Wage Theft in America: Why Millions of Working Americans Are Not Getting Paid - And What We Can Do About It''. The New Press. 2008. Available at www.iwj.org or www.wagetheft.org

''Lives Matter: A Handbook for Christian Organizing.'' Lanham, Md.: Sheed and Ward, 1986. ISBN 0934134871

Co-authored books

Bobo, Kim, et al. ''Organizing for Social Change.'' 2d ed. Washington, D.C.: Seven Locks Press, 2001. ISBN 0929765419

Solely authored articles

"Do Catholics Still Care About Labor?" ''America.'' August 29, 2005.

"Laboring for Justice: What's Happening in the Religion-and-Labor Movement?" ''Sojourners.'' July 30, 2005.

"Religion-Labor Partnerships: Alive and Growing in the New Millennium." ''WorkingUSA.'' 6:4 (March 2003).

Notes

References

"Interfaith Worker Justice: Organizational Profile." Marguerite Casey Foundation. Seattle: May 2005.

Jones, Arthur. "Religion, Labor Tap New Energy as Allies; Interfaith Committee Seeks Justice for Workers." ''National Catholic Reporter.'' June 4, 1999.

External links

Interfaith Worker Justice Web site

Wage Theft in America

A New Vision for the Department of Labor in Dollars & Sense magazine, January/February 2009

Category:Labor rights Category:Barnard College alumni Category:People from Cincinnati, Ohio Category:Living people

name	Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises
school tradition	Austrian School
color	firebrick
birth date	September 29, 1881
birth place	Lemberg, Galicia, Austria-Hungary (now Lviv, Ukraine)
death date	October 10, 1973
death place	New York City, New York, USA
relatives	Richard von Mises (brother)Gitta Sereny (step-daughter)
main interests	economics, political economy, philosophy of history, epistemology, rationalism, classical liberalism, libertarianism
influences	Kant, Bastiat, Böhm-Bawerk, Brentano, Husserl, Menger, Say, Turgot, Weber, Wieser
influenced	Allais, Anderson, Bauer, Block, Buchanan, Friedman, Hayek, Hazlitt, Hicks, Hoppe, Hutt, Kirzner, Lachmann, Lange, Paul, Raico, Reisman, Robbins, Rockwell, Rothbard, Salerno, Schiff, Schumpeter, Schutz, Sennholz, Simons, Smith
Main interests	Epistemology, Economics, Methodology, Logic
notable ideas	praxeology, economic calculation problem, methodological dualism }}

Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises (; September 29, 1881 – October 10, 1973) was a philosopher, Austrian School economist, and classical liberal. He became a prominent figure in the Austrian School of economic thought and is best known for his work on praxeology. Fearing a Nazi takeover of Europe, Mises emigrated to the United States in 1940. Mises had a significant influence on the libertarian movement in the United States in the mid-20th century.

Biography

Early life

Ludwig von Mises was born to wealthy Jewish parents in the city of Lemberg, in Galicia, Austria-Hungary (now Lviv in Ukraine). The family of his father Arthur Edler von Mises had been elevated to the Austrian nobility in the 19th century, and was involved in building and financing railroads. Ludwig's mother, Adele (née Landau), was a niece of Dr. Joachim Landau, a Liberal Party deputy to the Austrian Parliament. Arthur was stationed there as a construction engineer with Czernowitz railway company. At the age of twelve Ludwig spoke fluent Yiddish, German, Polish, and French, read Latin, and could understand Ukrainian. Mises was the older brother of the famous applied physicist Richard von Mises, a member of the Vienna Circle. Another brother, Karl von Mises, died as a child from scarlet fever. When Ludwig and Richard were children, his family moved back to their ancestral home of Vienna.

In 1900, he attended the University of Vienna, becoming influenced by the works of Carl Menger. Mises' father died in 1903, and in 1906 Mises was awarded his doctorate from the school of law.

Professional life

In the years from 1904 to 1914, Mises attended lectures given by the prominent Austrian economist Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk. There, he developed friendships not only with Menger and Böhm-Bawerk, but also prominent sociologist Max Weber. Mises taught as a ''Privatdozent'' at the Vienna University in the years from 1913 to 1934 while formally serving as secretary at the Vienna Chamber of Commerce from 1909 to 1934. In these roles, he became one of the closest economic advisers of Engelbert Dollfuss, the austrofascist but strongly anti-Nazi Austrian Chancellor, and later to Otto von Habsburg, the Christian democratic politician and claimant to the throne of Austria (which had been legally abolished in 1918). Friends and students of Mises in Europe included Wilhelm Röpke and Alfred Müller-Armack (influential advisors to German chancellor Ludwig Erhard), Jacques Rueff (monetary advisor to Charles de Gaulle), Lord Lionel Robbins (of the London School of Economics), and President of Italy, Luigi Einaudi.

Economist and political theorist F. A. Hayek first came to know Mises while working as Mises' subordinate at a government office dealing with Austria's post-World War I debt. Hayek wrote, "there I came to know him mainly as a tremendously efficient executive, the kind of man who, as was said of John Stuart Mill, because he does a normal day's work in two hours, always has a clear desk and time to talk about anything. I came to know him as one of the best educated and informed men I have ever known..." According to Mises' student Murray Rothbard, Hayek's development of Mises' theoretical work on the business cycle later earned Hayek the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (shared with Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal).

In 1934, Mises left Austria for Geneva, Switzerland, where he was a professor at the Graduate Institute of International Studies until 1940. Fearing the prospect of Germany taking control over Switzerland, in 1940 along with other Jewish refugees Mises left Europe and emigrated to New York City. There he became a visiting professor at New York University. He held this position from 1945 until his retirement in 1969, though he was not salaried by the university. Instead, businessmen such as Lawrence Fertig funded him and his work. For part of this period, Mises worked on currency issues for the Pan-Europa movement led by a fellow NYU faculty member and Austrian exile, Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi. In 1947, Mises became one of the founding members of the Mont Pelerin Society. Despite fleeing Europe, Mises is credited for having an influential role in the economic reconstruction of Europe after World War II through his professional relationships with Ludwig Erhard, Charles de Gaulle and Luigi Einaudi.

In America, Mises' work first influenced that of economists such as Benjamin Anderson, Leonard Read and Henry Hazlitt, but writers such as former radical Max Eastman, legal scholar Sylvester J. Petro, and novelist Ayn Rand were also among his friends and admirers. His American students included Israel Kirzner, Hans Sennholz, Ralph Raico, Leonard Liggio, George Reisman and Murray Rothbard. Mises later received an honorary doctorate from Grove City College.

Mises contributed articles to American Opinion, the journal of the John Birch Society, and was a member of its Editorial Advisory Board .

Despite his growing fame, Mises listed himself plainly in the New York phone directory and welcomed students into his home. He retired from teaching at the age of 87, then the oldest active professor in America. Mises died at the age of 92 at St. Vincent's hospital in New York. His body is buried at Ferncliff Cemetery, in Hartsdale, New York. Following his death, his entire library (and his personal desk) was donated to Hillsdale College where it is available for student and public use.

Contributions to the field of economics

Mises wrote and lectured extensively on behalf of classical liberalism and is seen as one of the leaders of the Austrian School of economics. In his treatise on economics, ''Human Action'', Mises introduced praxeology as a more general conceptual foundation of the social sciences and established that economic laws were only arrived at through the means of methodological individualism firmly rejecting positivism and materialism as a foundation for the social sciences. Many of his works, including ''Human Action'', were on two related economic themes:

# monetary economics and inflation; # the differences between government controlled economies and free markets. Mises argued that money is demanded for its usefulness in purchasing other goods, rather than for its own sake and that any unsound credit expansion causes business cycles. His other notable contribution was his argument that socialism must fail economically because of the economic calculation problemthe impossibility of a socialist government being able to make the economic calculations required to organize a complex economy. Mises projected that without a market economy there would be no functional price system, which he held essential for achieving rational and efficient allocation of capital goods to their most productive uses. If capital goods are the subject of neither rent nor exchange, as per private ownership of those means of production, then no barter terms or money prices can arise for them. Without the common nominal index of money pricing that allows comparison of costs of production to likely revenues, there can be no rational allocation of diverse capital goods in the production of diverse consumer goods whose production requires some use of scarce capital. In a socialist society, capital is not distributed according to the more efficient—thus profitable—capital structures, but rather to any use a theoretical socialist planner sees fit without the aid of monetary price signals to compare the profitability in a given use of capital.

According to Mises, socialism must fail, as demand cannot be known without prices. Therefore, socialist waste of capital goods is as chronic as the incentives for production and retention of capital are low, while capital goods are coercively monopolised by a dysfunctional State operating with only the data pertaining to interpersonal comparisons of utility, as per democratic production. These data are not sufficient for economic calculation, and therefore are not sufficient for efficient use and allocation of capital. Capital's place in a free market is ordained by the prices set by private owners of the means of production, who keep capital where its production is remunerated best by consumers, and who liquidate it and pass it to other uses if production is bankrupt. In socialism, such means for liquidation of capital goods, and the passage or maintenance of the means of production across extremely diverse applications throughout the divisions of labour according to the expense or cheapness of bidding capital away from vital production, is simply not present.

Mises' criticism of socialist paths of economic development is well-known, such as in his 1922 work ''Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis'':

The only certain fact about Russian affairs under the Soviet regime with regard to which all people agree is: that the standard of living of the Russian masses is much lower than that of the masses in the country which is universally considered as the paragon of capitalism, the United States of America. If we were to regard the Soviet regime as an experiment, we would have to say that the experiment has clearly demonstrated the superiority of capitalism and the inferiority of socialism.

These arguments were elaborated on by subsequent Austrian economists such as Nobel laureate Friedrich Hayek and students such as Hans Sennholz.

In ''Interventionism, An Economic Analysis'' (1940), Ludwig von Mises wrote:

The usual terminology of political language is stupid. What is 'left' and what is 'right'? Why should Hitler be 'right' and Stalin, his temporary friend, be 'left'? Who is 'reactionary' and who is 'progressive'? Reaction against an unwise policy is not to be condemned. And progress towards chaos is not to be commended. Nothing should find acceptance just because it is new, radical, and fashionable. 'Orthodoxy' is not an evil if the doctrine on which the 'orthodox' stand is sound. Who is anti-labor, those who want to lower labor to the Russian level, or those who want for labor the capitalistic standard of the United States? Who is 'nationalist,' those who want to bring their nation under the heel of the Nazis, or those who want to preserve its independence?

After the fall of the Soviet Union Robert Heilbroner, a lifelong advocate of socialism, said that "It turns out, of course, that Mises was right" about the impossibility of socialism. "Capitalism has been as unmistakable a success as socialism has been a failure. Here is the part that's hard to swallow. It has been the Friedmans, Hayeks, and von Miseses who have maintained that capitalism would flourish and that socialism would develop incurable ailments."

Mises developed the theory of the 'sovereignty of the consumer' in a free-market economy; in his view, the consumer ultimately dictates everything that happens. This argument was set out in ''Human Action'':

The captain is the consumer…the consumers determine precisely what should be produced, in what quality, and in what quantities…They are merciless egoistic bosses, full of whims and fancies, changeable and unpredictable. For them nothing counts other than their own satisfaction…In their capacity as buyers and consumers they are hard-hearted and callous, without consideration for other people…Capitalists…can only preserve and increase their wealth by filling best the orders of the consumers… In the conduct of their business affairs they must be unfeeling and stony-hearted because the consumers, their bosses, are themselves unfeeling and stony-hearted.

Criticisms

Milton Friedman considered Mises inflexible in his thinking:

The story I remember best happened at the initial Mont Pelerin meeting when he got up and said, "You're all a bunch of socialists." We were discussing the distribution of income, and whether you should have progressive income taxes. Some of the people there were expressing the view that there could be a justification for it.

Another occasion which is equally telling: Fritz Machlup was a student of Mises's, one of his most faithful disciples. At one of the Mont Pelerin meetings, Machlup gave a talk in which I think he questioned the idea of a gold standard; he came out in favor of floating exchange rates. Mises was so mad he wouldn't speak to Machlup for three years. Some people had to come around and bring them together again. It's hard to understand; you can get some understanding of it by taking into account how people like Mises were persecuted in their lives.

Within the post-WWII mainstream economics establishment, Mises suffered severe personal rejection: for example, in a 1957 review of his book ''The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality'', ''The Economist'' said of von Mises: "Professor von Mises has a splendid analytical mind and an admirable passion for liberty; but as a student of human nature he is worse than null and as a debater he is of Hyde Park standard." Conservative commentator Whittaker Chambers published a similarly negative review of that book in the ''National Review'', stating that Mises's thesis that anti-capitalist sentiment was rooted in "envy" epitomized "know-nothing conservatism" at its "know-nothingest." Economic historian Bruce Caldwell described Ludwig von Mises as the mid-20th century's "archetypal 'unscientific' economist."

In a 1978 interview, Friedrich Hayek said about his book ''Socialism'': "At first we all felt he was frightfully exaggerating and even offensive in tone. You see, he hurt all our deepest feelings, but gradually he won us around, although for a long time I had to – I just learned he was usually right in his conclusions, but I was not completely satisfied with his argument." (Hayek's critique of central planning never incorporated Mises' contention that prices as an indicator of scarcity can only arise in monetary exchanges among responsible owners, a particular case of the universal economic law that value judgements are utterly dependent on property rights constraints.)

After his death, his wife quoted a passage that Mises had written about Benjamin Anderson, and said that it best described Mises' own personality: "His most eminent qualities were his inflexible honesty, his unhesitating sincerity. He never yielded. He always freely enunciated what he considered to be true. If he had been prepared to suppress or only to soften his criticisms of popular, but irresponsible, policies, the most influential positions and offices would have been offered him. But he never compromised."

Bibliography

''The Theory of Money and Credit'' (1912, enlarged US edition 1953)

''Nation, State, and Economy'' (1919)

* ''Nation, State, and Economy''

"Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" (1920) (article)

''Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis'' (1922, 1932, 1951)

''Liberalismus'' (1927, 1962 – translated into English, with the new title ''The Free and Prosperous Commonwealth'')

''A Critique of Interventionism'' (1929)

* ''A Critique of Interventionism''

''Epistemological Problems of Economics'' (1933, 1960)

* ''Epistemological Problems of Economics''

''Memoirs'' (1940)

''Interventionism: An Economic Analysis'' (1941, 1998)

* ''Interventionism: An Economic Analysis''

''Omnipotent Government: The Rise of Total State and Total War'' (1944)

''Bureaucracy'' (1944, 1962)

''Planned Chaos'' (1947, added to 1951 edition of ''Socialism'')

* ''Planned Chaos''

''Human Action: A Treatise on Economics'' (1949, 1963, 1966, 1996)

''Planning for Freedom'' (1952, enlarged editions in 1962, 1974, and 1980)

''The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality'' (1956)

''Theory and History: An Interpretation of Social and Economic Evolution'' (1957)

* ''Theory and History''

''The Ultimate Foundation of Economic Science'' (1962)

* ''The Ultimate Foundation of Economic Science''

''The Historical Setting of the Austrian School of Economics'' (1969)

* ''The Historical Setting of the Austrian School of Economics''

''Notes and Recollections'' (1978)

''The Clash of Group Interests and Other Essays'' (1978)

* ''The Clash of Group Interests and Other Essays''

''On the Manipulation of Money and Credit'' (1978)

* ''The Causes of the Economic Crisis'', reissue

''Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow'' (1979, lectures given in 1959)

* ''Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow''

''Money, Method, and the Market Process'' (1990)

* ''Money, Method, and the Market Process''

''Economic Freedom and Interventionism'' (1990)

''The Free Market and Its Enemies'' (2004, lectures given in 1951)

* ''The Free Market and Its Enemies''

''Marxism Unmasked: From Delusion to Destruction'' (2006, lectures given in 1952)

''Ludwig von Mises on Money and Inflation'' (2010, lectures given in the 1960s)

See also

Richard von Mises

Analytic-synthetic distinction and Ludwig von Mises' response to the Kantian challenge

Classical liberalism

Contributions to liberal theory

Liberalism in Austria

Libertarianism

List of Austrian scientists

Mont Pelerin Society

Karl Polanyi, whom von Mises debated leading to Polanyi's book ''The Great Transformation''

F. A. Hayek, important disciple of von Mises

Wilhelm Röpke, important disciple of Mises

Henry Hazlitt, important disciple of von Mises

Max Eastman, important disciple of von Mises

Israel Kirzner, important disciple of von Mises

Hans Sennholz, important disciple of von Mises

Murray Rothbard, important disciple of von Mises

George Reisman, important disciple of von Mises

Lew Rockwell, founder of Ludwig von Mises Institute

Ludwig von Mises Institute

Gitta Sereny, his stepdaughter

Further reading

Hülsmann, Jörg Guido. ''Mises: The Last Knight of Liberalism'' (Auburn: Ludwig von Mises Institut, 2007) ISBN 978-1-933550-18-3

Kirzner, Israel M. ''Ludwig von Mises: the man and his economics'' (2001)

Eamonn Butler, ''Ludwig von Mises – A Primer'', Institute of Economic Affairs (2010)

Brian Doherty, ''Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement'' (2007)

Richard M. Ebeling, ''Political Economy, Public Policy, and Monetary Economics: Ludwig von Mises and the Austrian Tradition'', (London/New York: Routledge, 2010) 354 pages, ISBN 978-0415779517.

Richard M. Ebeling, "Ludwig von Mises: The Political Economist of Liberty, Part II", (''The Freeman'', June 2006)

Richard M. Ebeling, "Ludwig von Mises: The Political Economist of Liberty, Part I", (''The Freeman'', May 2006)

Richard M. Ebeling,"Ludwig von Mises and the Vienna of His Time, Part II", (''The Freeman'', April 2005)

Richard M. Ebeling, "Ludwig von Mises and the Vienna of His Time, Part I", (''The Freeman'', March 2005)

Richard M. Ebeling, "Austrian Economics and the Political Economy of Freedom", (''The Freeman'', June 2004)

Jörg Guido Hülsmann, ''Mises: The Last Knight of Liberalism'' (Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007), xvi+1143 pages, ISBN 978-1-933550-18-3. (Also available as a PDF file.)

David Gordon (2011-02-23) ''Mises's Epistemology'', Ludwig von Mises Institute

Margit von Mises, ''My Years With Ludwig von Mises'', Arlington House, 1976, rereleased in 1984 by Libertarian Press. ISBN 0915513005

Ron Paul, "Mises and Austrian economics: A personal view" The Ludwig von Mises Institute of Auburn University (1984), 31 pages.

Murray N. Rothbard, "Mises. Ludwig Edler von," ''The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics'', 1987, v. 3, pp. 479–80.

"A Tribute to Ludwig Von Mises". A list of works by and on Ludwig Von Mises by the Foundation for Economic Education.

Notes

Note regarding personal names: 'Edler' (in English: 'noble') is a German title, in rank similar to that of a baronet. It is not a first or middle name. The female form is 'Edle'. Similarly, below, 'Ritter' is German for 'knight' and 'Graf' for 'count'.

External links

Ludwig von Mises Institute Europe

Mises.org, Ludwig von Mises Institute USA

Mises.de, Books and Articles in the original German versions by Ludwig von Mises and other Authors of the Austrian School

Audio of von Mises subtitled in Spanish and English "Do wage earners and their employers have interests in conflict?"

Category:1881 births Category:1973 deaths Category:People from Lviv Category:American economics writers Category:American economists Category:American libertarians Category:Austrian economists Category:Austrian nobility Category:Austrian School economists Category:Austrian philosophers Category:American people of Austrian-Jewish descent Category:Austrian Jews Category:Austrian libertarians Category:Austrian anti-communists Category:20th-century Austrian people Category:Conservatism in the United States Category:New York University faculty Category:Ukrainian Jews Category:Social philosophy Category:Classical liberals Category:Heterodox economists Category:Libertarian theorists Category:Libertarian economists Category:20th-century Austrian people Category:Mont Pelerin Society members Category:Burials at Ferncliff Cemetery Category:University of Vienna alumni

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